Atribuyendo riesgos y criminalizando a los pobres y a los no blancos: determinando los factores de riesgo en 24 herramientas actuariales del sistema de justicia penal de EE. UU.
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5433/2176-6665.2021v26n3p659Palabras clave:
Avaliação De Risco, Ferramentas Atuariais, Estados Unidos, Sistema De Justiça CriminalResumen
En Estados Unidos, a partir de la década de 1920, se empezaron a utilizar herramientas actuariales en la evaluación de las solicitudes de libertad condicional, con el fin de predecir o estimar la posible recurrencia de solicitantes. Desde entonces, se han utilizado para gestionar mejor la población bajo control penitenciario, calculando el riesgo de reincidencia o no comparecencia ante el tribunal, en base a factores como antecedentes penales, edad, estado civil, sexo y comportamiento, con base en teorías criminológicas y técnicas de aprendizaje automático. Estas herramientas se basan en la aplicación de formularios y la elección de sus preguntas influye en la definición de los factores de riesgo. Actualmente, hay más de 400 herramientas en uso en las diferentes fases del sistema de justicia penal de los EE. UU., En las jurisdicciones estatales, nacionales y del condado, particularmente después de las crecientes críticas al sistema de fianzas y los prejuicios de los operadores de justicia penal. Este artículo analiza cuestionarios de 24 herramientas utilizadas por jurisdicciones estadounidenses. Los principales resultados son que las herramientas se han centrado en un tipo específico de sospechoso, pobres y negros, desde sus inicios, a pesar de que las empresas y las agencias gubernamentales argumentan que son neutrales y objetivos.Citas
ALLEGHENY County pretrial risk assessment weights and scales (part 2 of 2): re-arrest (New Criminal Activity –NCA). 2016b. Disponível em: http://ccappoap.com/images/Pretrial2016_Risk_Assessment_Re-Arrest_WeightScale_Reval_Complete.docx.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
ALLEGHENY County pretrial risk assessment-weights and scales (part 1 of 2): failure to appear. 2016a. Disponível em: http://www.ccappoap.com/images/Pretrial2016_Risk_Assessment_FTA_WeightScale_Reval_Complete.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
ARAPAHOE County Judicial Services – Pretrial Release. 2015. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Arapahoe-CO-Point-System-2015.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
BENJAMIN, Ruha. Race After technology: abolitionist tools for the New Jim Code. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2019.
BERNSTEIN, Peter L. Against the Gods: the remarkable story of risks. New York: John Wiley Sons, 1998.
CANYON County Sheriff’s Office Pretrial Risk Assessment. 2017. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Canyon-Condado-ID-Modified-VPRAI.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
CASS - COUNTY PRETRIAL EVALUATION. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Cass-County-Pretrial-Form.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
COLORADO ASSOCIATION OF PRETRIAL SERVICES. The Colorado Pretrial Assessment Tool (CPAT). Manual Version 2.1. - Administration, Scoring, and Reporting. Denver, CO: CAPS, 2015. Disponível em: http://capscolorado.org/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/CPAT_Manual_V21_06-29-2015.179175025.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
DELAWARE. Pretrial Assessment Tool. 2020. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Delaware-DELPAT.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
DESMARAIS, Sarah L.; SINGH, Jay P. Risk Assessment Instruments Validated and Implemented in correctional settings in the United States. Lexington, KY: Council of State Governments, 2013.
DIETER, Maurício S. Política criminal atuarial: a criminologia no fim da história. 2012. 309 f. Tese (Doutorado em Direito) — Faculdade de Direito, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, 2012.
ENNS, Peter K.; YI, Youngmin; COMFORT, Megan; GOLDMAN, Alyssa W.; LEE, Hedwig; MULLER, Christopher; WAKEFIELD, Sara; WANG, Emily A.; WILDEMAN, Christopher. What percentage of Americans have ever had a family member incarcerated? Evidence from the family history of incarceration survey (Fam HIS). Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, Thousand Oaks, CA, v. 5, p. 1–45, 2019.
EPIC - Electronic Privacy Information Center. AI in the Criminal Justice System. Washington, DC: EPIC, 2020. Disponível em: https://epic.org/issues/ai/ai-in-the-criminal-justice-system/. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
FLORIDA. Pretrial Misconduct Risk Assessment Instrument: Instructions for Completion and Scoring. [2011]. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/FL-Pretrial-Tool-Scoring-Instruction.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
GREEN, Ben. The false promise of risk assessments: epistemic reform and the limits of fairness. In: ACM FAT - CONFERENCE ON FAIRNESS, ACCOUNTABILITY, AND TRANSPARENCY, 30th, Barcelona, Spain, 2020. Proceedings […]. Barcelona: ACM, 2020. p. 1–13.
HACKING, Ian. The taming of chance. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
HARCOURT, Bernard E. Risk as a proxy for race: the dangers of risk assessment. Federal Sentencing Reporter, California, v. 27, n. 4, p. 237–243, 2015.
HARCOURT, Bernard E. The shaping of chance: actuarial models and criminal profiling at the turn of the twenty-first century. The University of Chicago Law Review, Chicago, ILL, v. 70, n. 1, p. 105–128, 2003.
HOMEOWNERSHIP rates show that Black Americans are currently the least likely group to own homes. USA Facts, Riverside, CA, 28 July, 2020. Disponível em: https://usafacts.org/articles/homeownership-rates-by-race/. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
HOROWITZ, Jake; UTADA, Connie. Community supervision marked by racial and gender disparities. The Pew Charitable Trusts, Philadelphia, 6 Dec. 2018. Disponível em: https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/articles/2018/12/06/community-supervision-marked-by-racialand-gender-disparities. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
IDAHO LSI-R scoring guide. Version 3.0 April 2015/WPR. Disponível em: https://epic.org/EPIC-19-11-21-ID-FOIA-20191206-ID-lsi-scoring-guide.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
INDIANA RISK ASSESSMENT SYSTEM. Policy for Indiana risk assessment system. Cincinnati, OH: University of Cincinnati, 2010. Disponível em: https://biblioteca.cejamericas.org/bitstream/handle/2015/4638/Indiana_Risk_Assessment_System_2010.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION SCIENCES. National Center for Education Statistics. Digest of Education Statistics. Table 219.70. Percentage of high school dropouts among persons 16 to 24 years old (status dropout rate), by sex and race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1960 through 2019. Washington, DC: NCES, 2020. Disponível em: https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d20/tables/dt20_219.70.asp. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
LAFRNS: Lafayette Risk Needs Screening Form, 2016. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Lafayette-Pretrial-Risk-Assessments.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
MAPPING PRETRIAL INJUSTICE. What are risk assessment tools? Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
MINNESOTA Pretrial Release Evaluation Form and Assessment Tool (MNPAT) Bench Card. Disponível em: https://www.mncourts.gov/mncourtsgov/media/Pretrial-Release/Minnesota-Pretrial-Release-Evaluation-Form-and-Assessment-Tool-(MNPAT).pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
MISSISSIPI. Center For Justice. Department of Corrections. Risk and needs -questionnaire scoring guide. Mississippi: The Crime and Justice Institute at CRJ, 2016. Disponível em: https://epic.org/EPIC-19-11-25-MS-FOIA-20200124-CRJ-Risk-and-Needs-Scoring-Guide(2016).pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
MISSOURI Pretrial Services Risk Assessment Jasper County. 2020. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Jasper-MO_Old-Eval.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
NELLIS, Ashley. The color of justice: racial and ethnic disparity in state prisons. Sentencing Project. 2016. Disponível em: https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/color-of-justice-racial-and-ethnic-disparity-in-state-prisons/. Acesso em: 15 mar. 2021.
NEVADA Pretrial risk (npr) assessment. Disponível em: https://nvcourts.gov/AOC/Committees_and_Commissions/Evidence/Documents/Committee_Materials/NPR_Assessment_FINAL/. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
OHIO Risk Assessment System: Pre-Trial Tool (PAT). 2014. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ORAS-PAT-8-20152.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
PARKER, Kim; HOROWITZ, Juliana; MAHL, Brian. On views of race and inequality, blacks and whites are worlds apart. 2016. Disponível em: https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2016/06/ST_2016.06.27_Race-Inequality-Final.pdf. Acesso em: 15 mar. 2021.
POPULATION management intake form, Prince George County. 2017. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Prince-George-MD-Tool.pdf..Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
PRETRIAL Services Risk Assessment Jasper County. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Jasper-MO_New-Eval.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
REPORT to the United Nations on racial disparities in the U.S. criminal justice system. The Sentencing Project, Washington, DC, 19 Apr. 2018. Disponível em: https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
SAMPLE compas core. Risk Assessment. Document. Disponível em: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/2702103-Sample-Risk-Assessment-COMPAS-CORE.html. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
SAWYER, Wendy; WAGNER, Peter. Mass incarceration: the whole pie 2020. Prison Policy Initiative, Northampton, MA, 24 Mar. 2020. Reports. Disponível em: https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/pie2020.html. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
SEGREGATION in America. The Economist, London, 4 Apr. 2018. Disponível em: https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2018/04/04/segregation-in-america. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
STRAFFORD County community corrections: pretrial assessment. 2020. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Strafford-Condado-Assessment-Intake.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
UNITED STATES. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Labor force characteristics by race and ethnicity, 2019. Washington, DC: Division of Information and Marketing Services, Dec. 2020. Report 1088. Disponível em: https://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/race-and-ethnicity/2019/home.htm. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN. Michigan Population Studies Center. Institute for Social Research. New racial segregation measures for large metropolitan areas: analysis of the 1990-2010 decennial censuses. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, 2020. Disponível em: https://www.psc.isr.umich.edu/dis/census/segregation2010.html. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
VIRGINIA. Department of Criminal Justice Services. Virginia Pretrial Risk Assessment Instrument (VPRAI). Richmond, VA: Department of Criminal Justice Services, 2009. VPRAI Instruction Manual, version 1.2. Disponível em: https://www.dcjs.virginia.gov/sites/dcjs.virginia.gov/files/publications/corrections/virginia-pretrial-risk-assessment-instrument-vprai.pdf. Acesso em:17 dez. 2020.
WALKLATE, Sandra; MYTHEN, Gabe. Beyond risk theory: experiential knowledge and knowing otherwise. Criminology & Criminal Justice, Thousand Oaks, CA, v. 11, n. 2, p. 99–103, 2011.
WILLIAMS, Aaron; EMAMDJOMEH, Armand. America is more diverse than ever — but still segregated. Washington Post, Washington, 10 May 2018. Disponível em: https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/national/segregation-us-cities/. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
WILSON, Valerie. Racial disparities in income and poverty remain largely unchanged amid strong income growth in 2019. In: ECONOMIC POLICY INSTITUTE. Working economics blog, Washington, DC, 16 Sept. 2020. Disponível em: https://www.epi.org/blog/racial-disparities-in-income-and-poverty-remain-largely-unchanged-amid-strong-income-growth-in-2019/. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
ALLEGHENY County pretrial risk assessment-weights and scales (part 1 of 2): failure to appear. 2016a. Disponível em: http://www.ccappoap.com/images/Pretrial2016_Risk_Assessment_FTA_WeightScale_Reval_Complete.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
ARAPAHOE County Judicial Services – Pretrial Release. 2015. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Arapahoe-CO-Point-System-2015.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
BENJAMIN, Ruha. Race After technology: abolitionist tools for the New Jim Code. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2019.
BERNSTEIN, Peter L. Against the Gods: the remarkable story of risks. New York: John Wiley Sons, 1998.
CANYON County Sheriff’s Office Pretrial Risk Assessment. 2017. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Canyon-Condado-ID-Modified-VPRAI.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
CASS - COUNTY PRETRIAL EVALUATION. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Cass-County-Pretrial-Form.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
COLORADO ASSOCIATION OF PRETRIAL SERVICES. The Colorado Pretrial Assessment Tool (CPAT). Manual Version 2.1. - Administration, Scoring, and Reporting. Denver, CO: CAPS, 2015. Disponível em: http://capscolorado.org/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/CPAT_Manual_V21_06-29-2015.179175025.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
DELAWARE. Pretrial Assessment Tool. 2020. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Delaware-DELPAT.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
DESMARAIS, Sarah L.; SINGH, Jay P. Risk Assessment Instruments Validated and Implemented in correctional settings in the United States. Lexington, KY: Council of State Governments, 2013.
DIETER, Maurício S. Política criminal atuarial: a criminologia no fim da história. 2012. 309 f. Tese (Doutorado em Direito) — Faculdade de Direito, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, 2012.
ENNS, Peter K.; YI, Youngmin; COMFORT, Megan; GOLDMAN, Alyssa W.; LEE, Hedwig; MULLER, Christopher; WAKEFIELD, Sara; WANG, Emily A.; WILDEMAN, Christopher. What percentage of Americans have ever had a family member incarcerated? Evidence from the family history of incarceration survey (Fam HIS). Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, Thousand Oaks, CA, v. 5, p. 1–45, 2019.
EPIC - Electronic Privacy Information Center. AI in the Criminal Justice System. Washington, DC: EPIC, 2020. Disponível em: https://epic.org/issues/ai/ai-in-the-criminal-justice-system/. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
FLORIDA. Pretrial Misconduct Risk Assessment Instrument: Instructions for Completion and Scoring. [2011]. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/FL-Pretrial-Tool-Scoring-Instruction.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
GREEN, Ben. The false promise of risk assessments: epistemic reform and the limits of fairness. In: ACM FAT - CONFERENCE ON FAIRNESS, ACCOUNTABILITY, AND TRANSPARENCY, 30th, Barcelona, Spain, 2020. Proceedings […]. Barcelona: ACM, 2020. p. 1–13.
HACKING, Ian. The taming of chance. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
HARCOURT, Bernard E. Risk as a proxy for race: the dangers of risk assessment. Federal Sentencing Reporter, California, v. 27, n. 4, p. 237–243, 2015.
HARCOURT, Bernard E. The shaping of chance: actuarial models and criminal profiling at the turn of the twenty-first century. The University of Chicago Law Review, Chicago, ILL, v. 70, n. 1, p. 105–128, 2003.
HOMEOWNERSHIP rates show that Black Americans are currently the least likely group to own homes. USA Facts, Riverside, CA, 28 July, 2020. Disponível em: https://usafacts.org/articles/homeownership-rates-by-race/. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
HOROWITZ, Jake; UTADA, Connie. Community supervision marked by racial and gender disparities. The Pew Charitable Trusts, Philadelphia, 6 Dec. 2018. Disponível em: https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/articles/2018/12/06/community-supervision-marked-by-racialand-gender-disparities. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
IDAHO LSI-R scoring guide. Version 3.0 April 2015/WPR. Disponível em: https://epic.org/EPIC-19-11-21-ID-FOIA-20191206-ID-lsi-scoring-guide.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
INDIANA RISK ASSESSMENT SYSTEM. Policy for Indiana risk assessment system. Cincinnati, OH: University of Cincinnati, 2010. Disponível em: https://biblioteca.cejamericas.org/bitstream/handle/2015/4638/Indiana_Risk_Assessment_System_2010.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION SCIENCES. National Center for Education Statistics. Digest of Education Statistics. Table 219.70. Percentage of high school dropouts among persons 16 to 24 years old (status dropout rate), by sex and race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1960 through 2019. Washington, DC: NCES, 2020. Disponível em: https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d20/tables/dt20_219.70.asp. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
LAFRNS: Lafayette Risk Needs Screening Form, 2016. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Lafayette-Pretrial-Risk-Assessments.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
MAPPING PRETRIAL INJUSTICE. What are risk assessment tools? Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
MINNESOTA Pretrial Release Evaluation Form and Assessment Tool (MNPAT) Bench Card. Disponível em: https://www.mncourts.gov/mncourtsgov/media/Pretrial-Release/Minnesota-Pretrial-Release-Evaluation-Form-and-Assessment-Tool-(MNPAT).pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
MISSISSIPI. Center For Justice. Department of Corrections. Risk and needs -questionnaire scoring guide. Mississippi: The Crime and Justice Institute at CRJ, 2016. Disponível em: https://epic.org/EPIC-19-11-25-MS-FOIA-20200124-CRJ-Risk-and-Needs-Scoring-Guide(2016).pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
MISSOURI Pretrial Services Risk Assessment Jasper County. 2020. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Jasper-MO_Old-Eval.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
NELLIS, Ashley. The color of justice: racial and ethnic disparity in state prisons. Sentencing Project. 2016. Disponível em: https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/color-of-justice-racial-and-ethnic-disparity-in-state-prisons/. Acesso em: 15 mar. 2021.
NEVADA Pretrial risk (npr) assessment. Disponível em: https://nvcourts.gov/AOC/Committees_and_Commissions/Evidence/Documents/Committee_Materials/NPR_Assessment_FINAL/. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
OHIO Risk Assessment System: Pre-Trial Tool (PAT). 2014. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ORAS-PAT-8-20152.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
PARKER, Kim; HOROWITZ, Juliana; MAHL, Brian. On views of race and inequality, blacks and whites are worlds apart. 2016. Disponível em: https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2016/06/ST_2016.06.27_Race-Inequality-Final.pdf. Acesso em: 15 mar. 2021.
POPULATION management intake form, Prince George County. 2017. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Prince-George-MD-Tool.pdf..Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
PRETRIAL Services Risk Assessment Jasper County. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Jasper-MO_New-Eval.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
REPORT to the United Nations on racial disparities in the U.S. criminal justice system. The Sentencing Project, Washington, DC, 19 Apr. 2018. Disponível em: https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
SAMPLE compas core. Risk Assessment. Document. Disponível em: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/2702103-Sample-Risk-Assessment-COMPAS-CORE.html. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
SAWYER, Wendy; WAGNER, Peter. Mass incarceration: the whole pie 2020. Prison Policy Initiative, Northampton, MA, 24 Mar. 2020. Reports. Disponível em: https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/pie2020.html. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
SEGREGATION in America. The Economist, London, 4 Apr. 2018. Disponível em: https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2018/04/04/segregation-in-america. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
STRAFFORD County community corrections: pretrial assessment. 2020. Disponível em: https://pretrialrisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Strafford-Condado-Assessment-Intake.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
UNITED STATES. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Labor force characteristics by race and ethnicity, 2019. Washington, DC: Division of Information and Marketing Services, Dec. 2020. Report 1088. Disponível em: https://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/race-and-ethnicity/2019/home.htm. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN. Michigan Population Studies Center. Institute for Social Research. New racial segregation measures for large metropolitan areas: analysis of the 1990-2010 decennial censuses. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, 2020. Disponível em: https://www.psc.isr.umich.edu/dis/census/segregation2010.html. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
VIRGINIA. Department of Criminal Justice Services. Virginia Pretrial Risk Assessment Instrument (VPRAI). Richmond, VA: Department of Criminal Justice Services, 2009. VPRAI Instruction Manual, version 1.2. Disponível em: https://www.dcjs.virginia.gov/sites/dcjs.virginia.gov/files/publications/corrections/virginia-pretrial-risk-assessment-instrument-vprai.pdf. Acesso em:17 dez. 2020.
WALKLATE, Sandra; MYTHEN, Gabe. Beyond risk theory: experiential knowledge and knowing otherwise. Criminology & Criminal Justice, Thousand Oaks, CA, v. 11, n. 2, p. 99–103, 2011.
WILLIAMS, Aaron; EMAMDJOMEH, Armand. America is more diverse than ever — but still segregated. Washington Post, Washington, 10 May 2018. Disponível em: https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/national/segregation-us-cities/. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
WILSON, Valerie. Racial disparities in income and poverty remain largely unchanged amid strong income growth in 2019. In: ECONOMIC POLICY INSTITUTE. Working economics blog, Washington, DC, 16 Sept. 2020. Disponível em: https://www.epi.org/blog/racial-disparities-in-income-and-poverty-remain-largely-unchanged-amid-strong-income-growth-in-2019/. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2020.
Descargas
Publicado
2021-12-30
Cómo citar
PASSOS, Iara Cunha. Atribuyendo riesgos y criminalizando a los pobres y a los no blancos: determinando los factores de riesgo en 24 herramientas actuariales del sistema de justicia penal de EE. UU. Mediações - Revista de Ciências Sociais, Londrina, v. 26, n. 3, p. 659–678, 2021. DOI: 10.5433/2176-6665.2021v26n3p659. Disponível em: https://ojs.uel.br/revistas/uel/index.php/mediacoes/article/view/42943. Acesso em: 22 jul. 2024.
Número
Sección
Artículos
Licencia
Los derechos de autor de los artículos publicados en Mediations son del autor; En caso de republicación parcial o total de la primera publicación, se solicita a los autores que indiquen la publicación original en la revista.
Mediações utiliza la licencia Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International, que proporciona acceso abierto, permitiendo a cualquier usuario leer, descargar, copiar y difundir su contenido, siempre que esté debidamente referenciado.
Las opiniones emitidas por los autores de los artículos son de su exclusiva responsabilidad.
