Sobre a longevidade da estereotipagem visual colonial e sua influência nos debates sociais e de identidade do século XXI.
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5433/1984-3356.2023v16n31p326-353Palavras-chave:
estereotipificação, pós-colonialismo, Branquitude, História Visual, História AfricanaResumo
Este artigo dialoga com os atuais debates sobre identidade social relacionados a determinados círculos pós-coloniais da África Austral, cujas origens europeias podem ser parcialmente rastreadas até a criação do gênero da fotografia colonial. A visualização contemporânea dos africanos não brancos no contexto europeu está ligada a um gênero que nasceu nos tempos do Alto Imperialismo. Como um fruto de sua época, a fotografia colonial lançou as bases para padrões de representação raciais e racistas de certos povos africanos e de seus supostos traços e aparência do ponto de vista do colonizador, criando assim padrões de ver. Até hoje, debates sociais e movimentos políticos estão atrelados à visualização dos povos não brancos. Este projeto é sobre o silenciamento histórico da África subsaariana por meio de imagens estereotipadas e suas ligações com a formação e manutenção de debates identitários pós-coloniais sobre tradições de visualização racializadas na Europa. Essa cegueira visual repetitiva é outra forma de agressão colonial ao perpetuar constantemente certas imagens e imaginários, facilitando, assim, as mentalidades coloniais. Os exemplos apresentados a seguir mostram o alcance dos estereótipos fotográficos coloniais, sem limitar o escopo das tradições de ver às fotografias. Em vez disso, são abarcadas outras áreas de espaços cotidianos visíveis, como nomes de ruas, monumentos, estátuas, processos judiciais e capas de livros.
Referências
ASSMANN, Aleida, Das Unbehagen an der Erinnerungskultur. Eine Intervention, Frankfurt: C. H. Beck, 2021. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17104/9783406748967
AUSTEN, Ralph A.; DERRICK, Jonathan. Middlemen of the Cameroons Rivers: The Duala and their Hinterland, c.1600–c.1960. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511497261
BARBASH, Ilisa; ROGERS, Molly; WILLIS, Deborah (ed.), To make their own in the World: The Enduring Legacy of the Zealy Daguerrotypes, Cambridge: Aperture and Peabody Museum Press, 2020.
BARTH, Hans; FÄSSLER, Hans. Agassiz, Louis. Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz (HLS), 23 mar. 2018. Disponível em: https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/de/articles/015920/2018-03-23/. Acesso em: 2 mar. 2023.
BECKER, Heike, Changing Urbanscapes: Colonial and postcolonial monuments in Windhoek. Nordic Journal of African Studies, [s. l.], v. 27, n. 1, p. 1-21, 2018.
BERGER, John. About Looking, London: Bloomsbury, 2009.
BLOCH, Werner. Koloniale Raubkunst:Wir wollen keine Almosen. Zeit Magazin, Leipzig, Dez. 2018. Disponível em: https://www.zeit.de/2019/01/koloniale-raubkunst-rueckgabe-afrikanische-kunstwerke-streit?utm_referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F. Acesso em: 2 mar. 2023.
BLOCH, Werner. Tansania und die Kolonialzeit – Der afrikanische Blick. Deutschlandfunk Kultur, [s. l.], Feb. 2019. Disponível em: https://www.deutschlandfunkkultur.de/tansania-und-die-kolonialzeit-der-afrikanische-blick-100.html. Acesso em: 2 mar. 2023.
BOLDRICK, Stacey; CLAY, Richard; DUSTER, Michelle; MAGEE, Keith. Remembering and Forgetting Confederate Monuments: Taking the Bitter with the Sweet. The Sculpture Journal, [s. l.], v. 31, n. 1, p. 1-15, 2022. https://doi.org/10.3828/sj.2022.31.1.02 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3828/sj.2022.31.1.02
CODREA-RADO, Anna. African Officials Respond to France’s Restitution Report. The New York Times, New York, 30 Nov. 2018. Disponível em: https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/30/arts/design/africa-macron-report-restitution.html. Acesso em: 10 mar. 2023.
COHEN, Joshua I.; COLARD, Sandrine; PAOLETTI, Giulia; CULLEN-MORALES, Deborah (ed.). The Expanded Subject. New Perspectives in Photographic Portraiture from Africa. Munich: Hirmer Publishers, 2016.
COLARD, Sandrine. Recaptioning the Congo: African Stories and Colonial Pictures. Tielt: Lannoo Publishers, 2022.
CONRAD, Sebastian. What Is Global History?. Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2017. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400880966
CURTIS, Neal. (ed.). The Pictorial Turn. London: Routledge, 2011.
DIAWARA, Mamadou; LATEGAN, Bernard; RÜSEN, Jörn (ed.). Historical Memory in Africa. Dealing with the Past, Reaching for the Future in an Intercultural Context. New York: Berghahn, 2013.
DIEBOLD, Jan. Hochadel und Kolonialismus im 20. Jahrhundert: Die imperiale Biographie des “Afrika Herzogs” Adolf Friedrich zu Mecklenburg. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Verlage, Wien, v. 21, 2019. Disponível em: https://www.vandenhoeck-ruprecht-verlage.com/themen-entdecken/geschichte/transnationaleglobalgeschichte/42409/hochadel-und-kolonialismus-im-20-jahrhundert?c=1535. Acesso em: 10 mar. 2023. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7788/9783412500832
FRANKENBERG, Ruth. White Women, Race Matters. The Social Construction of Whiteness. London: Routledge, 1993. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203973431
GEARY, Christraud; WEBB, Virginia-Lee (ed.). Delivering Views. Distant Cultures in Early Postcards. London: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 1998.
GODBY, Michael. Alfred Duggan-Cronin’s Photographs for the The Bantu Tribes of South Africa (1928-1954): The Construction of an Ambiguous Idyll, Kronos, Cape Town, v. 36, n. 1, p. 54-83, Nov. 2010.
GRASSKAMP, Walter. André Malraux und das imaginäre Museum: Die Weltkunst im Salon. Munich: C. H. Beck, 2014.
HALBWACHS, Maurice. On Collective Memory. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1991.
HALL, Catherine. Civilising Subjects. Metropole and Colony in the English Imagination, 1830-1867. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2002.
HALL, Stuart. The spectacle of the Oher. In: HALL, Stuart; EVANS, Jessica; NIXON, Sean. Representation: cultural representations and signifying practices. London: Sage, 2013. p. 223-276.
HARTMANN, Wolfram; HAYES, Patricia; SILVESTER, Jeremy (ed.). The colonising camera: photographs in the making of Namibian History. Columbus: Ohio University Press, 1999.
HARTOCOLLIS, Anemona. Images of slaves are property of Harvard, not a descendant, judge rules. The New York Times, New York, 4 Mar. 2021. Disponível em: https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/04/us/harvard-slave-photos-renty.html. Acesso em: 1 mar. 2023.
HASSETT, Dónal. Acknowledging or Occluding “The System of Violence”?: The Representation of Colonial Pasts and Presents in Belgium’s AfricaMuseum’. Journal of Genocide Research, Basingstoke, v. 22, n. 1, p. 26–45, 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2019.1653522
HAYES, Patricia; MINKLEY, Gary (ed.). Ambivalent. Photography and Visibility in African History. Columbus: Ohio University Press, 2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv224tp5b
HILLEBRECHT, Werner. Die Nama und der Krieg im Süden. In: ZIMMERER, Jürgen; ZELLER, Joachim (ed.). Völkermord in Deutsch-Südwestafrika. Der Kolonialkrieg 1904 - 1908 in Namibia und seine Folgen (Schlaglichter der Kolonialgeschichte). Berlin: Ch. Links Verlag, 2003.
HOFMANN, Laura. Neue Straßennamen fürs Afrikanische Viertel gefunden. Der Tagesspiegel, [Berlin], 11 Apr. 2018.
HOOG, Tycho Alexander van der. Brewing Tensions: The Colonial Gaze of the German-Namibian Publishing Industry. Africa Spectrum, [s. l.], v. 57, n. 3, p. 264-281, 2022. 2022. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/00020397221105900
HUBER, Sasha. You Name It. Milan: The Power Plant and Mousse Publishing, 2022.
HUBER, Sasha; MACHADO, Maria Helena P. T. (ed.). (T)races of Louis Agassiz: Photography, Body and Science, Yesterday and Today. São Paulo: Capacete, 2010.
IRMSCHER, Christoph. Louis Agassiz: Creator of American Science. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2013.
JÄGER, Jens. Photographie: Bilder der Neuzeit. Tübingen: Edition Diskord, 2000.
JÄGER, Jens. Bilder aus Afrika vor 1918. Zur visuellen Konstruktion Afrikas im europäischen Kolonialismus. In: PAUL, Gerhard. Visual History. Ein Studienbuch. Göttingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, 2006. p. 134–148.
KAPUŚCIŃSKI, Ryszard. The Other. London: Verso, 2008.
KEMP, Wolfgang. Geschichte der Fotografie: Von Daguerre bis Gursky. Munich: C. H. Beck, 2011.
KENRICK, David. Decolonisation, Identity and Nation in Rhodesia, 1964–1979: a race against time. Berlin: Springer, 2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32698-2
KNIGHTS, Mark. Historical Stereotypes and Histories of Stereotypes. In: TILEAGĂ, Cristian; BYFORD, Jovan (ed.). Psychology and History: Interdisciplinary Explorations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014. p. 242–67. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139525404.017
KOPP, Christian. Wen wir ehren: in deutschen Städten heißen Straßen immer noch nach Kolonialverbrechern und Sklavenhändlern. Warum?. Zeit Magazin, Leipzig, n. 12, Mar. 2016. Disponível em: https://www.zeit.de/2016/12/strassennamen-deutschland-kolonialismus-rassismus. Acesso em: 1 mar. 2023.
KUSSER, Astrid; LEWERENZ, Susann. Genealogien der Erinnerung – die Ausstellung Bilder verkehren im Kontext der Gedenkjahre 2004/2005. In: HOBUß, Steffi; LÖLKE, Ulrich (ed.). Erinnern verhandeln. Kolonialismus im kollektiven Gedächtnis Afrikas und Europas. Münster: Westfälisches Dampfboot, 2005. p. 214–245.
LANGBEHN, Volker M. (ed.). German Colonialism, Visual Culture, and Modern Memory, New York: Routledge, 2010. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203856901
LUTTIKHUIS, Bart. Beyond Race: Constructions of ‘Europeanness’ in Late-Colonial Legal Practice in the Dutch East Indies, European Review of History, Abingdon, v. 20, n. 4, p. 539-558, 2013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13507486.2013.764845
MACMILLAN, Margaret. The Uses and Abuses of History. London: Profile Books, 2009.
MAGNÚSSON, Sigurður Gylfi; SZIJÁRTÓ, István M. What is Microhistory? Theory and Practice. London: Routledge, 2013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203500637
MANGAN, James Anthony. Making Imperial Mentalities: Socialisation and British Imperialism. Oxford: Routledge, 2011. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203804162
MAY that image go away: what do we do with the statue of Piet Hein? CBK Rotterdam, [s. l.], 26 set. 2018. Disponible en: https://www.cbkrotterdam.nl/en/nieuws/van-mij-mag-dat-beeld-weg-wat-doen-we-met-het-standbeeld-van-piet-hein/. Access en: 9 Mar. 2023.
MECKLENBURG, Adolf Friedrich zu. From the Congo to the Niger and the Nile; an account of the German Central African expedition of 1910-1911. London: Duckworth & Co., 1913. 2 v.
MENAND, Louis, Morton, Agassiz and the Origins of Scientific Racism in the United States. The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, n. 34, p. 110-113, 2001-2002. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3134139
MITCHELL, William John Thomas. Picture Theory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.
MOHANRAM, Radhika. Imperial White. Race, Diaspora, and the British Empire. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007.
MOSER, Erica. Descendants of racist scientist back Norwich woman in fight over slave images. The Day, 28 Feb. 2023.
NATERMANN, Diana M. Colonial Masculinity Through Time. One Man’s Story of Monarchy, the Military, Colonialism, Fascism, and Decolonisation. In: ALMAGOR, Laura; IKONOMOU, Haakon; SIMONSEN, Gunvor (ed.). Global Biographies. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2022.
NGŨGĨ, Wa Thiong’o. Decolonising the Mind. The Politics of Language in African Literature. Suffolk: James Curry, 2005.
NORA, Pierre, Between Memory and History: Les Lieux de Mémoire. Representations, Berkeley, n. 26, p. 7-24, 1989. Special Issue. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2928520
NYAMNJOH, Francis B., #RhodesMustFall. Nibbling at Resilient Colonialism in South Africa. Bamenda: Langaa RPCIG, 2016. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvmd84n8
PAKENHAM, Thomas, The Scramble for Africa: White Man’s Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912. New York: Avon Books, 1992.
PANOFSKY, Erwin. Studien zur Ikonologie. Humanistische Themen in der Kunst der Renaissance. Cologne: DuMont, 1980.
PAUL, Gerhard. Von der historischen Bildkunde zur Visual History. Eine Einführung, Paul, Gerhard (ed.). Visual History. Ein Studienbuch, Göttingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, 2006. p. 7-36.
PRONCZUK, Monika; ZAVERI, Mihir. Statue of Leopold II Belgian King who Brutalized Congo, is removed in Antwerp. The New York Times, 9 June 2020.
RIPPE, Christoph. The Missionary, the Diviner and the Chief: Distributed Personhood and the Photographic Archive of the Mariannhill Mission. In: The African Photographic Archive. Research and Curatorial Strategies, Morton, Christopher & Newbury, Darren (eds.). London: Routledge, 2015. p. 39-57. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003103912-4
RIZZO, Lorena. Shades of Empire: Police Photography in German South-West Africa. Visual Anthropology, New York, v. 26, n. 4, p. 328-354, 2013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08949468.2013.804701
ROTBERG, Robert I. The Founder: Cecil Rhodes and the Pursuit of Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.
SAID, Edward W. Culture and Imperialism. London: Chatto and Windus, 1993.
SAID, Edward W. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books, 2003.
SANDLER, Willeke. "Deutsche Heimat in Afrika: Colonial Revisionism and the Construction of Germanness through Photography." Journal of Women's History, vol. 25 no. 1, 2013, p. 37-61. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/jowh.2013.0000
SARR, Felwine; SAVOY, Bénédicte. Rapport sur la restitution du patrimoine culturel africain. Vers une nouvelle éthique relationnelle. Paris : Université Paris Nanterre, 2018.
SARR, Felwine; SAVOY, Bénédicte. Zurückgeben. Über die Restitution afrikanischer Kulturgüter. Berlin: Matthes & Seitz, 2019.
SCHULZE, Winfried (ed.). Ego-Dokumente: Annäherung an den Menschen in der Geschichte. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1996. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1524/9783050047997
SEALY, Mark. Decolonising the Camera: Photography in Racial Time. London: Lawrence & Wishart, 2019.
SHIWEDA, Napandulwe, Images of Ambivalence. Photography in the Making of Omhedi, Northern Namibia, In: P. Hayes, G. Minkley (Eds.), Ambivalent. Photography and Visibility in African History (181-208). Ohio University Press, 2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv224tp5b.12
SIDDIQUE, Haroon. "BLM protesters topple statue of Bristol slave trader Edward Colston". The Guardian, New York, 7 June 2020. Disponible en: https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/jun/07/blm-protesters-topple-statue-of-bristol-slave-trader-edward-colston. Access en: 7 Mar. 2022.
SONTAG, Susan. On Photography. London: Penguin Classics, 2008.
SPIVAK, Gayatri Chakravorty, Can the Subaltern Speak?, In: NELSON, Cary; GROSSBERG, Lawrence. Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1988. p. 271–313.
STANGOR, Charles; SCHALLER, Mark. Stereotypes as individual and collective representations. In: STANGOR, Charles (ed.). Stereotypes and prejudice: Essential readings. New York: Psychology Press, 2000. p. 64-82.
STURANI, Enrico, Das Fremde im Bild. Überlegungen zur historischen Lektüre kolonialer Postkarten. Fotogeschichte, [s. l.], v. 21, p. 13-24, 2001.
TREEN, Kirsten, Unraveling confederate sentiment: the unfinished story of a sock. In: DIFFLEY, Kathleen; FAGAN, Benjamin (ed.). Visions of Glory: The Civil War in Word and Image. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2019. p. 173-183.
WEKKER, Gloria. Witte onschuld: Pradoxen van kolonialism en ras. Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 2020.
WERTSCH, James V. Blank Spots in Collective Memory: A Case Study of Russia. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Philadelphia, v. 617, p. 58-71, May 2008. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716207312870
WINTER, Jay. Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107589087
WHO was renty Taylor? Autograph, [s. l.], 10 nov. 2022. Available in: https://autograph.org.uk/blog/who-was-renty-taylor-honouring-and-recalling-7-stories-of-black-liberation-struggles/. Access in: 8 mar. 2023.
ZOCCHI, Benedetta. Italian Colonialism in the Making of National Consciousness: Representations of African Natives. Storicamente, [s. l.], v. 15, p. 1-27, 2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.12977/stor754
Downloads
Publicado
Como Citar
Edição
Seção
Licença
Copyright (c) 2023 Diana Miryong Natermann
Este trabalho está licenciado sob uma licença Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
A Revista Antíteses adota a Licença Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International, portanto, os direitos autorais relativos aos artigos publicados são do(s) autor (es), que cedem à Revista Antíteses o direito de exclusividade de primeira publicação.
Sob essa licença é possível: Compartilhar - copiar e redistribuir o material em qualquer suporte ou formato. Adaptar - remixar, transformar, e criar a partir do material, atribuindo o devido crédito.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
